Glossary

Sandstone

Fact Sheet:

Chemical Composition: Primarily composed of quartz (SiO₂) and feldspar, with minor amounts of other minerals like clay, calcite, and iron oxides
Hardness: 6 to 7 on the Mohs scale (depending on composition)
Crystal System: Sedimentary rock (clastic)
Color Varieties: Tan, brown, yellow, red, gray, pink, and white
Major Localities: United States, India, China, Australia, Egypt, and the United Kingdom
Common Uses: Construction material, decorative stone, paving, landscaping, and in glassmaking

Introduction: Sandstone is one of the most abundant and versatile sedimentary rocks on Earth, forming from the cementation of sand-sized grains of mineral, rock, or ...

^KKarstification

Karstification is the process of chemical weathering and dissolution of soluble rocks, such as limestone, that leads to the development of karst landscapes, including caves, sinkholes, and underground rivers. This process is significant in studying groundwater flow, landscape evolution, and the formation of karst aquifers.

Reference: Ford, D., & Williams, P. (2007). “Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology.” Wiley.

^KKata Tjuta

Kata Tjuta, also known as the Olgas, is a group of large, domed rock formations located in the Northern Territory of Australia. Composed primarily of conglomerate, Kata Tjuta is geologically significant for understanding the processes of erosion, sedimentation, and the tectonic history of central Australia.

Reference: Wells, A. T., & Forman, D. J. (1987). “Geology of the Northern Territory.” Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia.

^KKatabatic Wind

A katabatic wind is a gravity-driven wind that carries high-density air from a higher elevation down a slope under the force of gravity. Katabatic winds are common in polar regions, where they can influence local climate, ice dynamics, and the formation of ice shelves. They are significant in meteorology and polar research.

Reference: Parish, T. R., & Cassano, J. J. (2003). “The Role of Katabatic Winds on the Antarctic Surface Wind Regime.” Monthly Weather Review, 131(2), 317-333.

^KKatmaï Volcanic Complex

The Katmaï Volcanic Complex is a volcanic group in Alaska that includes Mount Katmaï and the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. The complex is known for the 1912 eruption of Novarupta, one of the largest volcanic eruptions of the 20th century. This area is significant for studying volcanic activity, pyroclastic flows, and the impact of large eruptions on the environment.

Reference: Hildreth, W., & Fierstein, J. (2000). “Katmai Volcanic Cluster and the Great Eruption of 1912.” Geological Society of America Bulletin, 112(10), 1594-1620.

^KKettle Hole

A kettle hole is a depression in a glacial outwash plain formed by the melting of a detached block of ice buried in the sediment. These features often become ponds or small lakes. Kettle holes are important in understanding glacial processes and post-glacial landscapes.

Reference: Johnson, W. H., & Clayton, L. (2003). “Formation of Kettles by Subglacial Meltwater.” Geological Society of America Bulletin, 115(5), 645-654.

^KKettle Lake

A kettle lake is a shallow, sediment-filled body of water formed in a kettle hole, which is created by the melting of a buried block of glacial ice. These lakes are important in studying post-glacial environments, sedimentary processes, and the ecological development of freshwater systems.

Reference: Johnson, W. H., & Clayton, L. (2003). “Formation of Kettles by Subglacial Meltwater.” Geological Society of America Bulletin, 115(5), 645-654.

^KKettle Moraine

Kettle moraine refers to a glacial landform consisting of a series of small hills and depressions formed by the deposition of till around stagnant blocks of ice. As the ice melts, kettle holes form, creating a hummocky landscape. Kettle moraines are important in understanding glacial deposition and post-glacial landscape development.

Reference: Easterbrook, D. J. (1999). “Surface Processes and Landforms.” Prentice Hall.

^KKeystone Thrust

The Keystone Thrust is a major geological fault located in the Spring Mountains of Nevada, where older Paleozoic rocks have been thrust over younger Mesozoic rocks. It is a classic example of a low-angle thrust fault and is important for understanding the tectonic history and structural geology of the region.

Reference: Burchfiel, B. C., & Royden, L. H. (1985). “North-South Extension within the Eastern Basin and Range Province: The Keystone Thrust Fault System.” Geology, 13(5), 419-422.

^KKinematic Analysis (Geology)

Kinematic analysis in geology involves the study of movement and deformation within the Earth’s crust, often through the analysis of fault and fold systems. This analysis helps geologists understand the history of tectonic events, the direction of stress and strain, and the development of geological structures.

Reference: Fossen, H. (2010). “Structural Geology.” Cambridge University Press.

^KKinematic Chain

In structural geology, a kinematic chain refers to a sequence of geological structures that are related by their movement history, such as a series of linked faults or folds. Analyzing kinematic chains helps geologists understand the progressive deformation of the Earth’s crust and the relationships between different structural features.

Reference: Passchier, C. W., & Trouw, R. A. J. (2005). “Microtectonics.” Springer.

^KKinematics (Geology)

Kinematics in geology is the study of the motion and deformation of rocks and geological structures without considering the forces that cause them. It focuses on describing and interpreting the displacement, rotation, and strain within the Earth’s crust, which is essential for understanding tectonic processes.

Reference: Fossen, H. (2010). “Structural Geology.” Cambridge University Press.

^KKinetic Metamorphism

Kinetic metamorphism refers to the changes in mineralogy and texture of rocks due to dynamic processes such as shearing and deformation, rather than solely from changes in temperature and pressure. It is important in understanding the formation of mylonites, tectonites, and other deformed rocks in shear zones.

Reference: Passchier, C. W., & Trouw, R. A. J. (2005). “Microtectonics.” Springer.

^KKnickpoint

A knickpoint is a sudden change in the gradient of a river, often seen as a waterfall or a sharp increase in slope. Knickpoints are significant in fluvial geomorphology as indicators of changes in base level, tectonic activity, or variations in lithology. They play a role in river incision and landscape evolution.

Reference: Crosby, B. T., & Whipple, K. X. (2006). “Knickpoint Initiation and Distribution within Fluvial Networks: 236 Waterfalls in the Waipaoa River, North Island, New Zealand.” Geological Society of America Bulletin, 118(7-8), 1051-1066.

^KKnickzone

A knickzone is a section of a river or stream where there is a sharp change in slope, often leading to increased erosion and sediment transport. Knickzones can be caused by tectonic uplift, changes in base level, or variations in rock resistance. They are significant in the study of river dynamics and landscape evolution.

Reference: Whipple, K. X. (2001). “Fluvial Landscape Response Time: How Plausible Is Steady-State Denudation?” American Journal of Science, 301(4-5), 313-325.

^KKobuk River

The Kobuk River is a major river in northwestern Alaska, flowing through the Arctic region and playing a significant role in the region’s ecology and hydrology. The river’s geological importance includes its influence on sediment transport, permafrost dynamics, and the formation of river terraces and floodplains.

Reference: Carter, L. D. (1988). “Kobuk River Area, Alaska: A Guide to Landforms and Surface Features.” USGS Professional Paper 1386.

^KKola Superdeep Borehole

The Kola Superdeep Borehole is the deepest man-made hole on Earth, reaching a depth of 12,262 meters (40,230 feet) in the Kola Peninsula, Russia. It was drilled for scientific research to study the deep continental crust. The borehole provides valuable information on the composition, temperature, and pressure conditions of the Earth’s crust at great depths.

Reference: Peive, A. A., & Krylov, D. P. (1988). “Results of Deep Continental Drilling at the Kola Peninsula, U.S.S.R.” Tectonophysics, 148(3-4), 241-246.

^KKrakatoa

Krakatoa is a volcanic island in Indonesia known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883, one of the most violent volcanic events in recorded history. The eruption caused massive tsunamis and led to global climate anomalies. Krakatoa is significant in volcanology, the study of natural disasters, and the impact of volcanic eruptions on global climate.

Reference: Simkin, T., & Fiske, R. S. (1983). “Krakatau 1883: The Volcanic Eruption and Its Effects.” Smithsonian Institution Press.

^KKuroshio Current

The Kuroshio Current is a warm ocean current that flows northward along the western Pacific Ocean, off the coast of Japan. It is one of the strongest currents in the world and plays a crucial role in the climate and marine ecosystems of the region. The Kuroshio Current is significant in oceanography, climate studies, and the understanding of oceanic circulation patterns.

Reference: Yasuda, I. (2003). “Hydrographic Structure and Variability in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Transition Area.” Journal of Oceanography, 59(4), 389-402.

^LLaccolith

A laccolith is a dome-shaped intrusive igneous body that forms when magma is injected between two layers of sedimentary rock, causing the overlying strata to bulge upwards. Laccoliths are significant in understanding the processes of magma emplacement and the formation of igneous rock structures within the Earth’s crust.

Reference: Pollard, D. D., & Johnson, A. M. (1973). “Mechanics of Growth of Some Laccolithic Intrusions in the Henry Mountains, Utah, II: Bending and Failure of Overburden Layers and Sill Formation.” Tectonophysics, 18(3-4), 311-354.

^LLacustrine Basin

A lacustrine basin is a depression or low-lying area that collects water, leading to the formation of a lake. These basins can be formed by tectonic activity, glacial processes, or volcanic activity. Lacustrine basins are significant in studying sedimentary environments, paleoclimate, and the hydrology of lake systems.

Reference: Last, W. M., & Smol, J. P. (2001). “Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments.” Kluwer Academic Publishers.

^LLahar

A lahar is a type of volcanic mudflow or debris flow that occurs when volcanic ash, pyroclastic material, and water mix, typically due to heavy rainfall, the melting of ice or snow, or the disruption of a crater lake. Lahars can be highly destructive, flowing rapidly down valleys and causing significant damage to communities and infrastructure.

Reference: Vallance, J. W. (2000). “Lahars.” In: Sigurdsson, H. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press, pp. 601-616.

^LLahontan Trough

The Lahontan Trough refers to the remnants of Lake Lahontan, a large Pleistocene lake that once covered much of present-day Nevada. The trough contains significant lacustrine deposits that provide insights into the climatic and hydrological history of the Great Basin during the Ice Age.

Reference: Benson, L. V., & Thompson, R. S. (1987). “Lake-Level Variation in the Lahontan Basin for the Past 50,000 Years.” Quaternary Research, 28(1), 69-85.

^LLandslide

A landslide is the movement of rock, soil, or debris down a slope due to gravity. Landslides can be triggered by factors such as heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity, or human activities. They are significant in understanding slope stability, erosion, and the risks associated with mountainous regions.

Reference: Cruden, D. M., & Varnes, D. J. (1996). “Landslide Types and Processes.” In: Turner, A. K., & Schuster, R. L. (Eds.), Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation. Transportation Research Board Special Report 247.

^TArchives: Glossary

Trachyte is a fine-grained, alkali-rich volcanic rock composed predominantly of alkali feldspar, with lesser amounts of mafic minerals. It is significant in petrology for understanding the evolution of alkaline magmas, the processes of magmatic differentiation, and the geochemistry of volcanic rocks.

Reference: Le Maitre, R. W. (2002). “Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms.” Cambridge University Press.